On a longitudinal sample of 181 emerging adult men (Mage = 19.36, SDage = 1.48), we analyzed how diverse socializing agents (fathers, male peers, magazines, music videos, TV dramas, and TV sitcoms) related to adherence to masculine norms, and how norm adherence related to men’s interpersonal sexual cognitions and behaviors (romantic relationship self-efficacy, sexual self-esteem, and alcohol-primed sexual encounters). We found that male peers, magazines, and music videos related to masculine norm adherence one year later, and that norm adherence predicted increased alcohol-primed sexual encounters. We followed this up with analyses investigating the role of specific masculine norms and found unique socialization and outcome paths for different masculine norms. For example, analyses indicated that male peers were positively related to norms of winning, power over women, playboy attitudes, and risk-taking, and that playboy attitudes, risk-taking, emotional control, and self-reliance predicted lower levels of romantic relationship self-efficacy. Interestingly, sitcom viewing related to lower adherence to masculine norms including heterosexual presentation and having power over women. Findings identify the unique influence of male peers, magazines, and music videos on young men’s sexual cognitions and behaviors and highlight how combining different socialization agents in one model is key to identifying these unique patterns of socialization and their consequences.

Objective: Previous research has documented connections between media use and violence against women, yet the mechanism behind that relation remains unclear, especially for media that do not explicitly depict sexual violence. The purpose of this study was to examine whether objectification of women mediates the relations between media use (television and pornography), and attitudes and behaviors supportive of violence against women. Method: Participants were 283 undergraduate men who completed surveys that assessed television consumptions (across four genres) and pornography use; acceptance of objectification of women; and rape myth acceptance and sexual deception behaviors. Results: Consumption of reality TV, sports programming, and pornography was each associated with greater acceptance of objectification of women, which in turn was associated with greater rape myth acceptance and more frequent acts of sexual deception. Objectification of women mediated the relations among sports programming consumption and rape myth acceptance and sexual deception, and among pornography consumption and sexual violence. Conclusion: Objectification of women is one mechanism by which television consumption (even TV that does not explicitly depict sexual violence) and pornography use are related to attitudes and behaviors supportive of violence against women. Media literacy programs for men that challenge the idea that women exist for men’s sexual pleasure may be an important step in combatting acceptance of rape myths and sexual violence.

Previous investigations of mainstream video games have documented a high prevalence of risk-promoting content, as well as a positive relation between video game play and participation in risk-taking behaviors such as reckless driving, substance use, and delinquency. In the present study, we extend this work by investigating the role of video game genre and masculinity ideology within this relation. A sample of 273 undergraduate men from a large Midwestern university completed online surveys of their video game exposure, masculinity ideology, and participation in a range of high-risk behaviors. Results indicate that playing Sports video games is associated with greater alcohol use, drug use, and delinquent behaviors, while Action games are only associated with greater delinquency. In contrast, playing Online video games was negatively associated with alcohol and drug use. Furthermore, the relation between Sports video games and participation in risky behaviors was fully mediated by participants’ adherence to masculinity ideology. These results reveal that the relations between video game play and risk outcomes were strongest for sports video games, and in some cases, were mediated by masculinity ideology.

Despite consistent evidence that fraternity membership is associated with greater perpetration and acceptance of sexual violence, less is known about why this link occurs. In this study, we use Structural Equation Modeling to test whether endorsement of traditional masculinity explains why fraternity membership is associated with greater rape myth acceptance and more sexual deception behaviors in a sample of 365 undergraduate men. Our assessment of traditional masculinity included the following 3 components: conformity to masculine norms, pressure to uphold masculine norms, and acceptance of objectification of women. Results suggest that conformity to masculine norms, pressure to uphold masculine norms, and acceptance of objectification of women mediate the relation between fraternity membership and acceptance of sexual violence.

Although research indicates significant associations between media exposure and risk behaviors, less is known about the potential mediating role of masculinity ideology, which is also linked to risk behaviors. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between media use, masculinity ideology, and participation in high-risk behaviors among a sample of 449 undergraduate men from a Midwestern university. Participants completed survey measures of their regular media use, masculinity ideology, and participation in several domains of risk behaviors. This study was among the first to test the relation between these constructs simultaneously within one model. Results indicated that media use was significantly associated with stronger endorsement of masculinity ideology. Masculinity ideology, in turn, was associated with sexual risk, alcohol use, drug use, and reckless driving. Furthermore, masculinity ideology was found to mediate the relation between media use and risk outcomes.

Objectification theorists argue that repeated exposure to sexually objectifying media content leads to higher levels of self-objectification. Although consequences of self-objectification for women’s sexual health and sexual agency have been proposed, efforts to test these connections have been infrequent and have yielded inconsistent results. We used structural equation modeling to test connections between exposure to three media genres (women’s magazines, lifestyle reality TV, and situation comedies), self-sexualization, and four dimensions of sexual agency among 754 heterosexual and bisexual undergraduate women aged 16–23 (M = 18.5). Our assessments of sexual agency focused on sexual assertiveness, condom use self-efficacy, sexual affect, and alcohol use to feel sexual. Findings confirmed our expectations. More frequent consumption of women’s magazines, lifestyle reality TV programs, and situation comedies each predicted greater self-sexualization, which in turn predicted greater use of alcohol to feel sexual, less condom use self-efficacy, and more negative sexual affect. We discuss implications for women’s sexual well-being and for research on media sexualization. We also offer suggestions for practitioners, parents, and educators to disrupt the associations among media use, self-sexualization, and diminished sexual agency.

Both traditional gender roles and traditional heterosexual scripts outline sexual roles for women that center on sexual passivity, prioritizing others’ needs, and self-silencing. Acceptance of these roles is associated with diminished sexual agency. Because mainstream media are a prominent source of traditional gender portrayals, we hypothesized that media use would be associated with diminished sexual agency for women, as a consequence of the traditional sexual roles conveyed. We modeled the relations among television (TV) use, acceptance of gendered sexual scripts, and sexual agency (sexual assertiveness, condom use self-efficacy, and sexual shame) in 415 sexually active undergraduate women. As expected, both TV exposure and perceived realism of TV content were associated with greater endorsement of gendered sexual scripts, which in turn were associated with lower sexual agency. Endorsement of gendered sexual scripts fully mediated the relation between TV use and sexual agency. Results suggest that endorsement of traditional gender roles and sexual scripts may be an important predictor of college women’s sexual agency. Interventions targeting women’s sexual health should focus on encouraging media literacy and dismantling gender stereotypic heterosexual scripts.

Although Facebook was created to help people feel connected with each other, data indicate that regular usage has both negative and positive connections to well-being. To explore these mixed results, we tested the role of social comparison and self-objectification as possible mediators of the link between Facebook use and three facets of psychological well-being: self-esteem, mental health, and body shame. Participants were 1,104 undergraduate women and men who completed surveys assessing their Facebook usage (minutes, passive use, and active use), social comparison, self-objectification, and well-being. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling, testing separate models for women and men. Models for each gender fit the data well. For women and men, Facebook use was associated with greater social comparison and greater self-objectification, which, in turn, was each related to lower self-esteem, poorer mental health, and greater body shame. Mediated models provided better fits to the data than models testing direct pathways to the mediators and well-being variables. Implications are discussed for young people's social media use, and future directions are provided.

The heterosexual script describes the set of complementary but unequal roles for women and men to follow in their romantic and sexual interactions. The heterosexual script is comprised of the sexual double standard (men want sex and women set sexual limits), courtship strategies (men attract women with power and women attract men through beauty and sexiness), and commitment strategies (men avoid commitment and women prioritize relationships). Despite evidence that women and men are aware of this script, and it is prominent in the media, there is no existing measure of endorsement of the heterosexual script. In Studies 1 and 2, we develop and validate a measure of endorsement of the heterosexual script. In Study 3, we demonstrate that television consumption predicts stronger endorsement of the heterosexual script. We discuss the implications of endorsement of the heterosexual script for sexual health and provide suggestions for future research using this scale.

Content analyses of popular media have consistently documented the narrow and stereotypical ways in which women and men are frequently depicted. Despite growing evidence that these media images impact viewers’ attitudes towards women and gender relations, less is known about how specifically media impact men’s beliefs about masculinity. Thus, the purpose of our paper was to explore the association between media use and beliefs about manhood among a sample of undergraduate men from a U.S. Midwestern university. In Study 1 (N = 488), we examine the relation between young men’s media consumption and their beliefs about the male role using the Adolescent Masculinity in Relationships Scale (AMIRS; Chu et al. 2005). As hypothesized, men’s media use was associated with more traditional beliefs about the male role, with reality TV and movie viewing emerging as significant predictors. Study 2 (N = 449) addresses the contribution of male-oriented media (e.g., sports programming, video games, men’s magazines) to men’s personal adherence to masculinity ideology as measured by the Conformity to Masculine Norm Inventory-46 (Parent and Moradi, 2009). Here, sports TV viewing, reality TV viewing, and reading men’s magazines were predictive of stronger adherence to masculinity ideology. These findings suggest that media may contribute not only to beliefs about women and gender relations, but also to young men’s beliefs about manhood and personal enactment of masculinity.

Major findings concerning the nature and impact of sexual content in mainstream entertainment media, with a focus on empirical studies and content analyses (published from 2000 to 2015) indicate that sexual content is prevalent in mainstream media, appearing in approximately 85% of films and 82% of television programs. On television, sexual content varies greatly by genre, sexual talk is more prevalent that depictions of sexual activity, and references to sexual risks and responsibilities are minimal. Sexual imagery is also prevalent in music videos, where the most frequent portrayals are of sexual and suggestive dance, sexual objectification, and self-touching. Women and female artists are more often shown in sexual ways than men and male artists. This trend extends to video games, where women are underrepresented, and, when present, are much more likely than men to be shown with a sexualized appearance or in sexually revealing clothing.

Drawing primarily on the premises of cultivation theory and social cognitive theory, researchers have explored how exposure to this content contributes to the sexual attitudes and behaviors of consumers. In terms of attitudes, heavier media exposure is associated with holding more positive attitudes toward uncommitted sexual exploration; stronger support of gender-related sexual roles, adversarial sexual beliefs, and the sexual double standard; and increased estimates of peers’ sexual behavior. Evidence is sparser for a causal link between media use and attitudes toward uncommitted sexual exploration. In terms of sexual behavior, cross-sectional surveys have found that frequent exposure to sexual media content is associated with increased reports of intentions to have sex, light sexual behavior (kissing, holding hands), and heavy sexual behavior, such as intercourse. Studies have also found that heavier exposure to sexual content predicts earlier or heavier sexual activity one year later. Several factors have been shown to moderate these connections, including the race and gender of the viewer and level of parental mediation.

Sexually explicit material or pornography has become widely accessible, especially on the Internet. Among both adolescents and adults, more frequent pornography consumption has been associated with holding more permissive sexual attitudes, such as a greater acceptance of extramarital and casual sex; with gender-specific attitudes, including greater support of traditional sexual roles and adversarial sexual beliefs; and with a greater likelihood of perpetrating sexual coercion, harassment, and aggression. Evidence also connects pornography consumption to individual sexual behavior, especially among adults. Among adults, pornography use is linked to earlier coital initiation, more frequent participation in specific sexual activities, participation in casual sex, and having a higher number of sexual partners; it has not been consistently linked to condom use.

Even though media platforms have multiplied in recent years, television viewing remains a prominent feature of the daily lives of emerging adults. The genres preferred and motivations for viewing are diverse, and many emerging adults report watching TV for relaxation, entertainment, and voyeurism. Despite their reasons for doing so, regular viewing of mainstream television content has many implications for emerging adults’ development. In this chapter, the authors review more than 150 studies that have examined television uses and effects among emerging adults. Overall, data gathered across both survey and experimental paradigms indicate significant effects in multiple domains, linking television exposure to higher levels of aggression, body dissatisfaction, alcohol consumption, sexualization of women, and the endorsement of racial, sexual, and gender stereotypes. The authors also review some positive effects on health beliefs and behaviors and discuss characteristics of the viewer and content that moderate these associations.